Walking Tour of Qingjing Mosque

July 8, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

My Experience

With the help of a video, I was able to take a walk around the huge area that is known as the Qingjing Mosque. This mosque is considered the one of the oldest mosque in China. It was built in 1009 and later rebuilt in the 1200s. This mosque and the area looks enormous. The area is surrounded by a white rectangular wall. You can enter the mosque through a very Islamic-dome entranceway. Inside of its walls are open-spaced grassy areas with white pillars. Six lines of clear Arabic written inscriptions can be seen on its interior walls. In one of the open spaces are six traditional tombs, where are placed in a group of three on each side. A gray-green tombstone in Arabic has been placed in this room. As you keep walking, you can find a small prayer room with praying carpets. The construction of this prayer room is a mix of Chinese and Islamic designs.

As you walk around the area, you will find modern additions to this mosque. The new parts of the mosque are surrounded by walls of modern red and green bricks. There is a gallery room, where the mosque holds its collection of Qurans, flyers, and old tombstones. There is also a modern mosque temple inside. Inside this temple are chandeliers hanging from the ceiling and rows of prayer rugs.

Interesting Tidbit

On my walking tour of the mosque, I found this Arabic inscription on one of its walls to be interesting. I think it is designed to look like a Chinese maritime ship. This would make sense because Muslims used their fortune from maritime trade to build this mosque for their community. It is cool to see that this mosque still embraces its maritime history.

Connection to Guiding Questions

This walking tour was an eye-opener. When I read about the Qingjing Mosque, I thought it was a small building since I did not think that foreign merchants had enough money to buy huge plots of land from the Chinese government. Well, I was totally wrong! This mosque was enormous. One researcher I read told me that one could figure out how much wealth, power, and influence a religious group had in a city by the size of the buildings the group built. Well, from what I saw of the mosque, the Muslim community had a lot of wealth, influence, and power in Quanzhou around 1000s. Since there are modern buildings added to this mosque, there must still be a large Muslim community in Quanzhou today.

1Finder. (2019, July 24). Islamic Documentary: The oldest Mosque in China [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/zHS1ugcU__w

The Quanzhou Ship by Jun Kimura

July 8, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

Summary of the Chapter

In the fourth chapter of the book, Archaeology of East Asian shipbuilding, Jun Kimura (2016) describes the construction and discovery of the sunken merchant ship found in the tidal mud flats off the Honzhu Harbour in the 1970s. Honzhu Harbor is one of the two harbors of Quanzhou city. The other one is Fashi. Archaeologists found that it was a ship constructed in the early 1270s under the Yuan Dynasty and sunk in mid-1270s. Maritime trade commodities were found in its cargo. The cargo contained scented woods and spices like pepper. The Chinese ceramics from the Song and Yuan dynasty that it had on board identified it as an Asian merchant ship. Through inspection, the ship was fairly new when it sunk and had no signs of repair. The cargo carrying capacity of this ship was around 200 metric tons. It could carry 50 people and some livestock. The design of the stowage space is suitable for small cargo items.

For the construction of the ship, Jun Kimura explains that the keel, the longitudinal structure along the centerline of the bottom of the vessel, was around 18 meters. He also mentions that the Chinese tradition of bao shou kong, which was the tradition of placing seven coins or coin holes with bronze mirror, was used in the scarf between the forward keel and mail keel. The characteristics of the bow and stern on this ship held general characteristics of Chinese warcraft. He continues that the ship’s haul planking demonstrated a complex structure and consisted of double and in part triple layered planking. Iron nails, not wood nails, were driven down diagonally and used to fasten the planks. Putty was used to protect the iron nails from erosion. The ship demonstrated an early use of iron clamps to tighten the plank tiers, which is a common Chinese ship building technique.

Interesting Tidbits

This chapter mentions that only 1% of the cargo remained on the ship. It could have been saved or taken before the sunken ship’s discovery in the 1970s. Wooden inked strips were found near the cargo on the ship. Archaeologists expect that they are tags to label the ship’s cargo. In addition to the cargo that was found on the ship, they found carpentry tools, ivory chess pieces, and chopsticks, which they expect were the crew’s personal items. I guess when the crew was on that ship, they ate with chopsticks, played chess, and used the carpentry tools to fix the ship if the ship needed some quick repairs.

Connection to Guiding Questions

This chapters answers my second question about the impact of multiculturalism or foreign traders had on Quanzhou. Because trade between foreign merchants and local Quanzhou Chinese residents was important investment in Quanzhou and the rest of China, Quanzhou spent a lot of time building trade ships. Many of these ships were privately owned by wealthy merchants. These wealthy merchants were also political leaders of the Muslim community. These ships had to be built to last long journeys and to protect their cargo. This sunken ship that was found is an example of one of those ships. Its cargo gave evidence of what was exported and imported. Its construction gave insight to the technology and craftsmanship of maritime shipbuilding.

Kimura, J. (2016). Quanzhou Ship. In J. Kimura (Author), Archaeology of east Asian shipbuilding (pp. 69-102). University Press of Florida. https://doi.org/10.1111/1095-9270.12215

A Painting of Quanzhou

July 7, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

What is It?

This painting depicts Quanzhou when it was major port city under the Yuan Dynasty. The painter and date of painting are unknown. In this painting, you see the vast amount of ships that docked and floated along the harbor. Each ship looks different, which means that they probably came from different areas. In the distance, you can see two pagodas, which are probably located in southern Quanzhou, where the foreign communities and Kaiyuan Temple are located. It looks like a great day in Quanzhou; the sea is calm, the wind is slowly guiding the ships, and the sun is setting.

Interesting Tidbit

One interesting tidbit of this painting is that it matches well with the observations made by Marco Polo about Quanzhou. Marco Polo wrote that when he visited Quanzhou there were vast amount of ships at the harbor. In this painting, the number of boats cannot be counted. I tried. This painting really illustrates how popular the harbor was in Quanzhou during this time period.

Connection to Guiding Question

This painting is example of how popular the trade city of Quanzhou was during the Song and Yuan dynasty. Merchants ships from every region came to Quanzhou to trade. There were small-size, medium-size, and huge-size merchant ships that arrived at Quanzhou. This painting demonstrates that Quanzhou was definitely a center of maritime trade and therefore, a city that gave Yuan dynasty a lot of revenue to pursue its military and political pursuits. In addition, this painting shows evidence of foreign communities in Quanzhou. In the distance, you can see the Twin Stone Pagodas of Kaiyuan Temple. These two pagodas carry non-Chinese religious carvings and are located in Quannan. Historians think Quannan was the area where the foreign communities resided and is located near the harbor.

Municipality of Quanzhou. (n.d.). Quanzhou [Illustration]. UNESCO. https://archive.shine.cn/newsimage/2017/03/08/020170308170944.jpg

The Carving of Hanuman

July 7, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

What is it?

If you go to the Kaiyuan temple in Quanzhou, you can see a carving on the Renshou Pagoda. This carving is an anthropomorphic monkey wearing warrior clothing and holding a saber. Since Kaiyuan temple has many motifs from Hindu mythology, including the God, Rama, many archaeologists and historians claim this carving is a depiction of Hanuman. Hanuman is the companion to the god, Rama, and a central character in the Hindu epic, the Ramayama. In Tamil-speaking version of the Ramayama, Hanuman is also an avatar of Shiva. Because of this carving and other motifs of Hindu mythology located in this temple, archaeologists think that there was once a Hindu community in Quanzhou during its heyday.

Interesting Tidbit

Another interesting thing about this carving is that many tourists have mistaken it for Sun Wu Kong, the monkey king character from the Chinese epic, Journey to the West, by Wu Cheng’en. However, it cannot be Sun Wu Kong because this carving was on a pagoda that was rebuilt in 1237, and Journey to the West was written during the Ming dynasty (1368 – 1644). Many scholars believe that Hanuman was the inspiration for Sun Wu Kong. Hanuman, Rama, and the story, the Ramayama, are also very central to Thai culture. Southeast Asia, where Thailand is located, was also an area that was involved in the Maritime Silk Road.

Connection to Guiding Questions

This artifact is connected to my guided question because this Hanuman carving demonstrates that there was a foreign community in Quanzhou during the 1100s and 1200s that practice Hinduism. This community of foreign traders and missionaries came either from the India or Southeast Asia. This carving is also an example of cultural exchange between maritime foreign traders and the locals. Hanuman is a character from the Hindu religion, which originated in India. Hindu merchants from India and Southeast Asia brought Hanuman to South China, and from there, the Chinese locals adapted Hanuman into their own folklore. Later, that Chinese folklore character, Sun Wu Kong, was written into an epic and later worshipped by the Chinese population.

plannapus. (2019, November). [Sun Wu Kong]. Stack exchange. https://i.stack.imgur.com/YbyFZ.jpg

An Ancient Map of Maritime Silk Roads

July 7, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

What is It?

This is an ancient map of maritime silk trade routes. It shows the port cities written in Chinese and the trade routes that link them. From this map, you can see that maritime trade included East Africa, the Middle East peninsula, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, the Indonesian archipelago, East China, Japan, and Korea. This map also has illustrations of the merchant junk ships that Chinese merchants used. Unfortunately, the creator and the year this map was created are unknown.

Interesting Tidbits

From this map, you can tell which countries were close to and which countries were far from Quanzhou. Because of this distance, you can see why the Muslim merchants from Far West decided to stay in Quanzhou, and at the same time, you can see why Southeast Asia was a popular trade route for Chinese merchants.

Connection to Guiding Question

This map can be used to explain why Quanzhou became a prime port city during the Song and Yuan dynasties. From this map you can see that it was close to sea and located between trading partner, such as the Korea, Japan, Vietnam, and Indonesia. In addition, this map also shows the location where the foreign merchant communities originally came from and where the Chinese merchants went when they traveled on the merchant ships built in Quanzhou.

Municipality of Quanzhou. (n.d.). An Ancient map of the Maritime Silk Roads [Illustration]. UNESCO. https://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/styles/silkroad_colorbox/public/ map_pf_quangzhou_maritime_silk_roads_5.jpg?itok=D3Aoc64K

UNESCO’s Silk Road Programme

July 7, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

What is it?

Silk Road Programme is a digital platform and website that presents information about the historical sites, artifacts, and ideas that spread along the old trade routes. It also aims to connect and spread current ideas along the same present routes. Since Quanzhou was a major port city along the Maritime Silk Road, I was able to find some valuable information. Quanzhou was a major port city under the Song and Yuan dynasties and was linked to other maritime silk road trade ports, including Madras in India, Siraf in Iran, Muscat in Oman, and Zanibar. The Arab merchants nicknamed Quanzhou “Zayton” or “Zaitun” from Chinese word for the Erythrina variegata or the red flowers that grew around the city. During its heyday, Quanzhou was a city where Buddhists, Hindus, Taoists, Nestorians, Manichaeans, Jews, Catholics and Muslim could co-exist peacefully with one another. Some of the most famous travelers to Quanzhou port city were Marco Polo and Ibu Battuta.

Interesting Tidbits

On this website, you can find anything related to the silk trade road. I found a page that explained the history of porcelain, one of the notable exports from China. I learned that it was exported worldwide since the Han Dynasty. During the Song dynasty, the “Five Great Kilns” emerged, and during the Yuan dynasty, the blue and white porcelain which we usually think of when we think of “china”, emerged. Porcelain continued being an export from China even when Quanzhou was no longer used as an overseas trade city. This website also has pictures of sunken maritime ships that were found off the South China Sea.

Connection to Guiding Questions

This website is a great source of background information about Quanzhou. It gives a brief description of the city, includes photos of famous sites, and provides elaborate information about Quanzhou’s exports. If I want, I can also seek information about its rival port city, Guangzhou, and the port cities where a majority of the residents of Quanzhou were from. Since it is a database, it also has links to informative videos and articles for further research.

The Silk Roads Programme. (n.d.). UNESCO. Retrieved July 6, 2020, from https://en.unesco.org/ silkroad/

Muslims and Hindus in the Culture and Morphology of Quanzhou from the Tenth to the Thirteenth Century by Hugh R. Clark

July 6, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

Summary of Article

Hugh R Clark (1995) explains that the presence of Muslim and Hindu communities and the religions they brought with them affected the culture and economy of Quanzhou from the 11th to the 13th century. The Muslim community that arrived to Quanzhou from West Asia became the dominant foreign community in Quanzhou during the late Song and Yuan dynasty. After the establishment of the Superintendent Trade Office in 1087, this community experienced a growth in numbers and in wealth. This growth was “reflected in the expanded growth it provided for itself, such as mosques and graveywards” (p.62). Shinawei, a devoted patron of this community, was known to take public interest for his fellow traders and bought land to establish a Muslim cemetery. Communities of foreign merchants from South and Southeast Asia had members that shared an “Indianized” culture. These communities included Tamil speakers, who left Tamil inscriptions on stone tablets, and a Shiva cult, who had enough influence to build the “Stone Bamboo Shoot” and to leave Shiva carvings on the walls of the Kaiyuan Temple.

In the beginning of the Song dynasty, Quanzhou was not a legal port for overseas trade. Merchants could only trade legally in Guangzhou. However, since it was cheaper to trade illegally in Quanzhou than trade legally in Guangzhou, trade in Quanzhou began to grow and the government started to lose money. Due to this growth of illegal trade, the Song dynasty was forced to legalize trade by setting up a Superintendent of Trade office in Quanzhou. In addition, the introduction of cotton and Champa rice that China received through trade with Southeast Asia helped revolutionize China’s agriculture. Because of the expansion of trade within and overseas, Fujian economy changed from cultivation of rice and cotton to “export orientated economy producing luxury fruits” (p. 70). Lastly, due to prominence of overseas trade in Quanzhou and Fujian, the once looked down merchant profession was gradually being accepted by the elite society. “Social contact between merchants and gentry became the norm” (p. 71).

Interesting Tidbits

In this article, I learned a lot about the rise of Quanzhou as major trade port. Since China’s start in the maritime trade, Guangzhou, Quanzhou’s rival port city, was already an established port and had the largest foreign community in China. Under the Tang dynasty, Quanzhou was established as a port city, but due to its dangerous environment, not many people wanted to go there. However, due to the riots and massacres of the foreign communities in Guangzhou by the rebel leader, Huang Chao, many foreigners left Guangzhou and moved to either Quanzhou or other port cities in Southeast Asia. Another interesting tidbit is that Champa rice was introduced to Fujian peasants from the Mekong Delta. This rice was adopted because it grew really well in famine and drought areas. (Fujian relied on trade due to famine and drought in its rural areas.) As years went by, Fujian peasants developed new rice-growing techniques to improve the taste and quality of the rice. Later, their practices became the foundation for Chinese rice-based culinary traditions.

Connection to Guiding Question

This article explained that Quanzhou’s foreign community impacted the city and its surroundings areas culturally and economically. First, since foreign traders made Quanzhou a prosperous port city through illegal trade, the Song government was forced to make Quanzhou an official trade port. Second, Muslims and other foreign communities made Quanzhou a more trade-friendly city. Since wealthy and influential non-Chinese residents took a pubic interest in the welfare of other foreign merchants, their roles in Quanzhou’s maritime trade became more political. Lastly, the imported products such as rice and cotton changed the agricultural and culinary traditions of China.

Clark, H. R. (1995). Muslims and Hindus in the culture and morphology of Quanzhou from the tenth to the thirteenth century. Journal of World History, 6(1), 49-74. Retrieved from: https://www.thewha.org/

Development of Maritime Trade by Jung-pang Lo

July 6, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

Summary of Book Chapter

In this chapter, Jung-pang Lo (2012) explains the reasons for the rise of maritime trade in China. During the Tang and Song dynasties, there was a huge mass movement of Chinese people from Northern China to Fujian because of impoverish soil, oppression of alien rule, foreign invasions, and civil commotions. Since the new southern government could no longer rely on the agrarian economy to gather revenue, they embraced trade and commerce. With the increase of production and the low prices of ceramics, textiles, and paper, more merchants were able to sell more products and more common people were able to buy it. Since the government taxed both the production and traded items, government reaped a lot in tax revenues. Since the government needed money to protect and delay invasions from the northern invaders, they favored strengthening their naval forces and their influence on trade instead on their Neo-Confucius ideas of a self-efficient China. They also restricted some imports from the general public because they needed the imports for trade with northern aliens as well as for naval defense. One such import was steel and that was used for swords and shipbuilding. Also, some expatriate merchants would donated and sold their ships (and crew) to the government to help with the government’s defense.

The Song Dynasty founder encouraged maritime commerce and the opening of ports. For every Chinese port city, he established a superintendency of merchant ships office. The functions of this office was to handle the affairs of foreign merchants, inspect foreign ships, levy duties on imports, supervise Chinese merchants who went abroad, and license their ships. The officials of this office listened to merchant complaints and some sent requests to the government to reduce their grievances. Most of the time the government granted their request. To increase trade, the government wanted foreign merchants to think that China was an attractive place to trade their goods. They aided shipwrecked foreign sailors, weakened Chinese laws for lawbreaking foreigners, and offered influential merchants government positions. Also, if any merchants were able to get a large number of foreign traders to ship goods to China, the government would give them official ranks. Lastly, in order to manage their monopolies on trade, the government would ask merchants to transport and retail government items (tea, alcohol, and aromatics) to the masses.

Interesting Tidbits

One fact that I found interesting was that Emperor Gaozung first found foreign goods to be useless and wasteful luxuries, but once he realized how huge his profits were from trade, he changed his mind and encouraged maritime trade. Another fact was that Southern China was known for typhoons, storms, mud, rivers, and shallow waters. Although these waters were connected to many places, it was difficult to maneuver with a ship. Therefore, thanks to the considerable development in water control and land reclamation, these southern port cities were able to make it more ship accessible.

Connection to Guiding Question

This chapter answered my first question as to why Quanzhou became a trade city and therefore a multicultural city. Alien invaders invaded Northern China, so the government, who lost their capital in the north, had to reclaim their lost power by moving south. To protect their new borders and to keep their invaders at bay, the government needed money and goods. Maritime trade provided them with that revenue. By opening more ports, managing trade, and welcoming traders to China, the government increased their revenue as well as the port cities’ wealth in cultural and religious diversity.

Lo, J.-P. (2012). Development of maritime trade. In B. A. Elleman (Ed.), China as a Sea Power, 1127-1368 (pp. 186-208). NUS Press.

Quanzhou Archaeology: A Brief Review by Richard Pearson

July 6, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

Summary of Article

This article explains how the artifacts, buildings, and sunken ships discovered at Quanzhou demonstrates the impact that foreign residents had on Quanzhou’s culture and economy. First, Richard Pearson (2002) explains how religiously diverse and tolerant Quanzhou was through its various religious buildings. Built during the Song and Yuan Dynasty, the Kaiyuansi Temple, the most prominent Buddhist temple in Quanzhou, provides evidence of an Indian origin with two Brahman-style pagodas and a pair of square columns filled with ancient Indian myth carvings. Hindu architectural and sculptural fragments with illustrations of Hindu mythology and motifs is found along the Tonghuai gate and demonstrates the likelihood that there was a Hindu temple and community. In 1956, a discovery of inscriptions confirmed a presence of a Tamil-speaking merchant community. A Manichean temple with its stone representation of Mani is the only Manichaen temple to survive after centuries of religious persecution and extinction. Although discovered artifacts proves that there were once six mosques in Quanzhou, only Ashab Mosque (Shengyousi) survives. At this mosque, there are two inscribed stone tablets that have both Arabic and Chinese inscriptions. Discovered tombstones mentions individuals from Turkestan, Persia, Yemen, and Armenia. Later, the Ming and later dynasties used these tombstones to rebuild defensive walls and gates. A few tombstones depicting Christian motifs are considered to be gravestones for Nestorian and Franciscan Christians.

The Houzhu ship is a sunken merchant ship that was found off the coast of Quanzhou Bay. Archaeologists claim that the ship was built locally and was privately own by the powerful merchant, Pu Shougeng, during the late Song and early Yuan dynasties. The ship’s cargo includes vast amounts of scented woods, spices, and medicinal products. They also mention that the cargo was owned by a collection of traders: the ship owner, the crew, the passengers, and the government, who had ordered these goods. Buddhist monks of Kaiyuansi Temple sponsored the building of the Luoyang Wan’an bridge, which stands on the Jin River that links Quanzhou to its ceramic factories. Kiln sites located near Quanzhou showed an increase of ceramic productions during the Yuan dynasty due to the introduction of saggers. Saggers increase the scale of production and efficiency while also increasing labor input.

Interesting Tidbits

The article mentions that the “Gravestone of Ahman”, an example of acculturation in Quanzhou, contains Persian, Arabic, and Chinese inscriptions. The inscriptions explain that the patriarch of the Ahman family was a foreign merchant who married a local Quanzhou girl. The Ahman family’s younger generations spoke Chinese and lived in Quanzhou for generations. The gravestone also demonstrates a mixture of Persian and Chinese customs.

Connection to Guiding Questions

This article explains the impact of Muslims, Hindus, and other foreign settlers had on the economy and culture of Quanzhou during the Song and Yuan dynasties. First, the settlers impacted the city’s culture because they had created their own stamp on the city by building religious centers and buying land for cemeteries. They also sponsored infrastructure projects. These settlers were also highly involved in maritime trade, which was the main focus of Quanzhou’s economy. This multiculturalism still influences Quanzhou today because the current local culture is a mix between these foreign settlers’ customs and the local Chinese traditions.

Pearson, R., Li, M., & Li, G. (2002). Quanzhou archaeology: A brief review. International Journal of Historical Archaelogy, 6(1), 23-59. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014881309593

Pu Shougeng Reconsidered: Pu, His Family, and Their Role in the Maritime Trade of Quanzhou by John W. Chaffee

June 28, 2020July 22, 2020 ~ msbarkeriscool ~ Leave a comment

Summary of Article

John W. Chaffee (2017) tells the story of a cultural assimilated Muslim, Pu Shougeng, and his role in the maritime trade of Quanzhou under the Song and Yuan Dynasty. Pu Shougeng’s family were successful Muslim traders from the “Western Regions” who made their fortune first in Guangzhou and then in Quanzhou. For thirty years, Pu Shougeng dominated the maritime trade and held many political leadership roles such as superintendent. He is most known for his surrendering of Quanzhou to Mongols, the leaders of Yuan Dynasty, in 1276. With the support of Emperor Qubilai, Pu Shougeng became the prime political, military, and economic leader in Quanzhou. He was admired for his knowledge about Chinese maritime trading as well as handling foreign affairs of foreign merchants.

Like their father, his sons also had an impact on the political affairs of China. His oldest kept foreign trade routes safe and managed foreign affairs as Fujian Maritime Trade Superintendent. His second son proposed the restoration of examinations while his third son drafted an imperial declaration that supported Confucian beliefs. His brother’s son, Pu Rihe, took part in the restoration of Quanzhou’s Qingjin Mosque. However, their legacy was cut short in the late Yuan period. A long military conflict between foreign Muslims and widespread riots led to Pu family’s decline. Later, the Ming emperor blacklisted the Pu family because he considered Shougeng’s most famous act as a traitorous act towards the Song dynasty.

Interesting Tidbits

While reading this article, I was surprised how influential the role that Pu Shougeng played as a non-Chinese resident in Quanzhou. He controlled the maritime trade in Quanzhou, played a role in protecting borders against the pirates, and spoke directly to the Yuan emperor. Although backed by the 1% of Quanzhou, he is the one who did and later was blamed for the surrender of Quanzhou to Mongols. Another interesting tidbit that I found interesting is that according to historians and John Chaffee, many tribute envoys like Shougeng’s family adopted the last name “Pu” because it was close to the last name “Abu”.

Connection to Guiding Questions

The article helped answer my guiding question because it provides an example and a name of a foreign merchant who politically and socially impacted Quanzhou and its role in maritime trade. Pu Shougeng was a political voice of Quanzhou. He took on leadership roles in the community and communicated directly with the Yuan emperors. He and his sons were involved in making sure Quanzhou remained open and safe for trade with non-Chinese merchants. His family made personal connections with successful foreign merchants including marrying into their families. His role in Quanzhou demonstrated the large impact the Muslim community had in Quanzhou during the open trade policies of Song and Yuan as well as the decline of that power during the xenophobia of the Ming Dynasty.

Antony, R. J., & Schottenhammer, A. (2017). Pu Shougeng Reconsidered: Pu, His Family, and Their Role in the Maritime Trade of Quanzhou. In Beyond the Silk Roads: New discourses on China’s role in East Asian maritime history (pp. 63-75). Wiesbaden, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag. doi:http://www.jstor.com/stable/j.ctvckq3m6.8